Library Guides: Shogunate Japan: Samurai

Source: Susann Schuster (2021)

The samurai (or bushi) were the warriors of premodern Japan. They later made up the ruling military class that eventually became the highest ranking social caste of the Edo Period (1603-1867). Samurai employed a range of weapons such as bows and arrows, spears and guns, but their main weapon and symbol was the sword.

Samurai were supposed to lead their lives according to the ethic code of bushido ("the way of the warrior"). Strongly Confucian in nature, bushido stressed concepts such as loyalty to one's master, self discipline and respectful, ethical behaviour. Many samurai were also drawn to the teachings and practices of Zen Buddhism. Learn more about the samurai by clicking through the tabs below.

Samurai (World History Encyclopaedia, 2019, July 5)
The samurai (also bushi) were a class of warriors that arose in the 10th century in Japan and which performed military service until the 19th century. Elite and highly-trained soldiers adept at using both the bow and sword, the samurai were an essential component of Japanese armies in the medieval period. This article describes in depth the history of the samurai class, how they behaved, their armour and weapons, and the fall of the samurai warrior class.
Samurai (Britannica, n.d.)
The term samurai was originally used to denote the aristocratic warriors (bushi), but it came to apply to all the members of the warrior class that rose to power in the 12th century and dominated the Japanese government until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. This article gives a detailed overview of the samurai and their role in Shogunate Japan.
How were samurai paid (Reference.com, 2020, March 28)
Samurai were paid by their feudal lords, the Daimyo, in rice or land. As Japan became more peaceful and the need for warriors decreased, many samurai moved into administrative positions or became tradesmen. This article describes the amounts samurai were paid in, and other rewards they received for loyal service.

Training for life and war (How Stuff Works, 2021, May 14)
The amount and form of a samurai's training depended on the wealth of his family. This article talks about what skills a samurai needed and what training they took to become a samurai.
Childhood and samurai training (Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography, 2004)
This website gives a brief description of the training expected of very small children and the skills they would need to become a samurai warrior.
Samurai training (Facts and Details, 2016, September)
This website provides some fun facts about the training samurai warriors underwent, and some of the skills they needed to learn.
19th-century samurai training text deciphered (Live Science, 2013, August 29)
A training text, used by a martial arts school to teach members of the bushi (samurai) class, has been deciphered, revealing the rules samurai were expected to follow and what it took to truly become a master swordsman. The text is called Bugei no jo, which means "Introduction to Martial Arts" and is dated to the 15th year of Tenpo (1844). Written for samurai students about to learn Takenouchi-ryū, a martial arts system, it would have prepared students for the challenges awaiting them. This article talks about some of the skills a samurai in training would have needed to learn to become a samurai warrior.
Education in the Tokugawa era (Britannica, n.d.)
This article describes education for both samurai and commoners during shogunate Japan, and how religion and changing political conditions in Japan impacted the kind of education samurai received.
Education within samurai families (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology - Japan, n.d.)
The samurai families of the Edo period not only used education to stabilise their own position but also came to further the cause of learning, especially through the systematised teaching of literary studies. This article talks about samurai education and how it developed throughout the Edo period.

Everyday life of a samurai (Ancient Pages, 2018, November 16)
This article describes some of the diet and daily routines samurai followed.
Marriage (New World Encyclopaedia, n.d.)
The marriage of samurai was arranged by someone with the same or higher rank than those being married. This article discusses how and why these marriages were arranged and what marriage meant for samurai.
Education (New World Encyclopaedia, n.d.)
This article gives a brief overview of the education of samurai warriors.
Japanese family life: a historical perspective (The Great Courses Plus, 2017, May 18)
This article looks at the family and marriage in Japan from ancient times through to modern, and includes some information on marriage practices for the samurai class in Edo Japan.

The evolution of samurai weaponry and armour (Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography, 2004)
This website describes some of the weapons and armour used by the samurai and how the choice of weapon was made.
The equipment of the samurai (War History Online, 2017, March 16)
Samurai were the elite warriors of feudal Japan; as dominant as knights were in Europe. Their equipment was as much a display of their status as it was a matter of military necessity. These were some of the most crucial parts of their armour.
6 weapons of the Japanese samurai (History Hit, 2021, July 30)
As the elite warrior class, the samurai treated their weapons and equipment as a display of their powerful status as well as for military necessity. Here are 6 of the most important samurai weapons.

Eleven of the greatest samurai battles of history (War History Online, 2017, May 15)
For hundreds of years, noble samurai warriors dominated warfare in Japan. This article lists some of their most significant battles.
Strength and honour: 7 of the greatest samurai battles of all time (History Collection, 2017, April 11)
This article provides overviews of seven of the most important samurai battles, including artworks depicting scenes from each of the battles.
The samurai at war (History of Fighting, n.d.)
Samurai war tactics, strategies and customs would all change down the ages but a willingness to serve and even die for their lord was a constant, especially if the death of a samurai could be a glorious one in the heat of battle. This article discusses some of the war tactics used by samurai.
How were samurai rewarded for their service? (Janet Panic, 2021, May 16)
This website provides a very brief overview of the rewards samurai would receive for their loyalty and their service in battle.

10 Facts about the onna-bugeisha - Japan’s female samurai warriors (History Hit, 2021, July 21)
While the word “samurai” is a strictly masculine term, female warriors have existed in Japan since as early as 200 AD. Known as “Onna-Bugeisha” (literally meaning “woman warrior”), these women were trained in martial arts and strategy, and fought alongside the samurai to defend their homes, families and honour. Centuries before the rise of the samurai class in the 12th century, onna-bugeisha were acknowledged to be every bit as strong, deadly and fearless as their male counterparts. Here are 10 facts about the onna-bugeisha.
How onna-bugeisha, feudal Japan's women samurai, were erased from history (Vice, 2018, September 29)
Throughout history, most Japanese women were subject to rigid social expectations of marriage, domesticity, and motherhood, but there also existed women warriors like Takeko who were known to be to be every bit as strong, capable, and courageous as their male counterparts. They belonged to the bushi class, a noble class of feudal Japanese warriors, and helped settle new lands, defend their territory, and even had a legal right to supervise lands as jito (stewards). They were exceptionally skilled in combat; trained in the use of the Kaiken dagger, the naginata, the polearm sword, and the art of tantōjutsu knife fighting. Centuries before the rise of the samurai class in the 12th century, these women would fight in times of war to protect their homes, families, and deep sense of honour. This article talks about these women and how they were erased from history and our understanding of what it means to be a samurai.
The hidden lives of samurai women (Engelsberg Ideas, 2020, July 30)
Samurai women in early Japan were cloistered, unseen figures - but it is a mistake to underestimate their importance. This article discusses the role they played in samurai culture, and describes some of the more famous samurai women.

The Bushido Code - the eight virtues of the samurai (University of Southern California, n.d.)
This article discusses the eight virtues that make up the Bushido Code.
Bushido (New World Encyclopaedia, n.d.)
Bushido (武士道 Bushidō), meaning "way of the warrior," is a Japanese code of conduct and a way of life, associated with the samurai, and loosely analogous to the Western concept of chivalry. It is also known as the Samurai code and was influenced by the teachings of Zen Buddhism as well as Confucianism. This article looks at the origins of the code, what it involved and how it developed over time.

Seppuku (How Stuff Works, 2021, May 14)
Honour was so important to the samurai that they would frequently take their own lives in the face of failure, or if they had violated Bushido. This honour-bound suicide became very ritualised, taking the form of seppuku. This article describes this ritual and why it was important in samurai culture.
What is seppuku? (History Channel, 2018, August 22)
Often called “hara-kiri” in the West, “seppuku” is a form of ritual suicide that originated with Japan’s ancient samurai warrior class. The grisly act typically involved stabbing oneself in the belly with a short sword, slicing open the stomach and then turning the blade upwards to ensure a fatal wound. Read this article to learn more about this ritual, and the role it played in samurai culture.

Ronin (Masterless samurai) (Nakasendo Way, n.d.)
“Ronin” is the Japanese term for a masterless samurai and is written with the characters for ‘floating’ and ‘man’, i.e., a warrior adrift with no lord to serve nor stipend for income. During the late stages of the Warring States period and early years of the Edo period, many samurai were thrown out of work when their daimyo or feudal overlord lost his status because of defeat, had his domain taken away or reduced in size, or was relocated to a smaller domain. With no master, the ronin and his family had to seek alternative employment. At the time of the Battle of Sekigahara, it is estimated that there were as many as 400,000 ronin. This article describes the role that ronin played in Edo Japan.
What were the ronin? (ThoughtCo, 2019, August 19)
A ronin was a samurai warrior in feudal Japan without a master or lord — known as a daimyo. This article describes how ronin came to exist and how the ronin made a living.
Forty-seven ronin (New World Encyclopaedia, n.d.)
The tale of the Forty-Seven Ronin, also known as the Forty-Seven Samurai, the Akō vendetta, the Akō Wandering Samurai (赤穂浪士 Akō rōshi), or the Genroku Akō Incident (元禄赤穂事件 Genroku akō jiken), is a prototypical Japanese story. Described by one noted Japan scholar as the country's "national legend" (Izumo), it recounts the most famous case involving the samurai code of honor, Bushidō. This article describes the story in depth.

Suit of armour

A suit of armour with horse saddle, stirrups and trappings 1665
metal, wood, pigments, lacquer, gold paint, silk, cotton, leather, gilt.

Armour

18th century. Lacquer on metal (maki-e), wood, pigment, silk, cotton, leather, metal (thread).

Taira no Kanemori

Sketch, block-ready preparatory drawing ('hanshita-e') for unpublished print. Poem by Taira no Kanemori, young samurai seeking advice from a roadside physiognomist. Ink on paper.

Samurai helmet with a half-face mask

Distinguished samurai from the 1500s to the 1800s wore flamboyant helmets designed and produced according to the warrior’s specifications. A distinctive helmet identified the wearer as a leader on the battlefield and ensured that his actions were visible to all. This iron mask—which has wrinkles, teeth, and whiskers along with an aggressive expression—is designed to cover the face below the eyes. The nose was made from a separate piece of iron and secured with pins, which allowed for its removal. The throat guard, fastened to the lower edge of the face cover, consists of four iron plates coated with brown-black lacquer. The plates are laced together with braided cords of dark blue silk.

Samurai's shallow hat

This shallow circular hat (jingasa) was worn by a samurai on official outings. On the crown are inscribed three characters that read "Move slowly like a forest," a passage from the classic military tactics treatise written by Sun Mu of ancient China.

Jingasa are usually light. This one is made with leather covered with layers of paper. The textured surface is finished with brownish lacquer. Inside at the crown is a cushion; two padded straps on the sides secure the hat.

Samurai woodblock print

This woodblock print depicts a samurai warrior and was likely created in 1850.

Kosode with goshodoki designs (samurai-class women's robe)

The kosode is considered the precursor to the modern kimono. Kosode were first worn as undergarments in the end of the Heian period (794–1185); by the late medieval and early modern eras in Japan (the 1500s through the 1800s) they had come to be used as outer garments.

This kosode is of a type classified as goshodoki (literally, "imperial palace motifs"). Worn particularly by samurai-class women from the late 1700s through the early to mid-1800s, goshodoki kosode typically have floral or landscape themes, amid which are placed select motifs alluding to specific literary sources, often scenes from Heian period classical literature or from a Noh play. Over time, however, the themes of these kimonos became more homogenous, and popular motifs were grouped together to create a literary aura without reference to a particular literary source. Also, instead of being covered with designs, many later goshodoki kosode had undecorated upper sections, perhaps bearing only family crests, with patterns around the lower sections.

This kosode was executed using techniques typically seen in goshodoki pieces: The white paste-resist patterns on the pearl grey background were embellished with couched gold-wrapped threads and silk embroidery in red-orange, light orange, purple, yellow, and green. Some of the white-patterned areas were further decorated in red applied with a stencil dying technique known as hitta shibori, which created the effect of miniature tie-dyed dots. Other patterns were enhanced with fine hand-drawn ink lines.

The motifs found in this kosode's design include banana plants (basho), a rope curtain, flowing water, pines, ivy, chrysanthemums, bamboo, and rocks. The predominance of the banana leaves may allude to the Noh play Basho. The fact that the designs cover the entire kosode suggests that this work dates to the early 1800s.

Battle at the Uji River, from The Tale of the Heike

The Tale of the Heike, which tells of the conflict between two powerful warrior families, was a popular source for screen-painting subjects. This screen, one of a pair, depicts an episode from Heike recounting an 1184 contest of military tactics and horsemanship between two warriors.

On a military campaign, Sasaki Shiro Takatsuna and Kajiwara Genta Kagesue approached the Uji River. The river was flooding, and its bridge was out; they had no choice but to swim their horses across. Each man seeking to be first, they dashed toward the river, with Kajiwara in the lead. Close behind him, Sasaki shouted, ”Your saddle looks loose, tighten it!” With Kajiwara’s attention diverted, Sasaki seized the lead, crossed the river, and ascended the opposite bank. Kajiwara’s horse was caught in the current and made land far downstream.

This painting depicts the moment when Sasaki, riding a chestnut horse, shouted at Kajiwara, who is mounted on a black horse.

Black-lacquered Tachi

Although there are various views as to the provenance of this sword, it is generally believed that the emperor at that time gave it to Minamoto Yorimasa to honor his killing of a monster. It was later given to the Toki family and in 1882, Toki Yorichika presented it to Emperor Meiji via Higashikuze Michitomi.
　

Deeply curved near the hilt, the slim blade has an antique and refined shape of the late Heian period with a fushigokoro (slightly bent downward) tip. The jigane (the ground metal) has a wood grain pattern in hadadachigokoro and shirokeutsuri (a vague white misty formation that runs parallel to the hamon in the ground metal). The hamon (literally "blade pattern," which is a visual effect created on the blade by the hardening process) is in the suguha (straight) style with a narrow nioiguchi (the dividing line between the hamon and the ground metal). Due to the high shinogi (the ridgeline) and the strong shinogiji (an area between the shinogi and the back of the blade) with a masame-hada (a straight grain pattern), it is believed that this sword was made in Yamato no Kuni in the late Heian period.
　

For the koshirae (outer fittings), the hilt, sheath and metal fittings are all black lacquered and blue thread is wrapped around the sheath. It seems that originally, the hilt was also wrapped with thread. This type of sword with black lacquered koshirae is depicted in many picture scrolls as a sword in common use among samurai. The year of creation seems to be in the late Kamakura period.

Long sword, with black-lacquered mountings wreathed with silver and bronze strips

Wrapping the handle and the sheath with a thin metal plate in a spiral is called hirumaki, which was used for reinforcement and decoration purposes. The hirumaki sword is a type of koshirae (outer fittings) that was popular among samurai. For the handle, the bronze ground is plated with silver and wrapped with a cloth, which is coated with lacquer and over which metal fittings with a lion pattern are mounted. The sheath is lacquered in black and wrapped with silver and copper plates in three stripes (komochihirumaki) and the ashiai is lacquered and wrapped with a cloth in diamond (watarimaki). The kabutogane, fuchigane, semegane and ishizuki are made of silver and copper without any pattern. The tsuba (handguard) in the shape of mokko (platycrater) is lacquered in black and rimmed with a copper band. It is said that Nanbu Masanaga (? to 1360) used to wear this tachi.

Coat (worn over armor, jin-baori)

This is a jinbaori (a sleeveless jacket) worn by Kobayakawa Hideaki (1582 – 1602), who sided with Tokugawa Iyeyasu at the Battle of Sekigahara while serving Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The red thick woolen cloth called raxa, which was described as "as red as Shojo," a Chinese fictitious being that loved drinking, was brought into Japan from Europe and became a popular material at the time. On the back of the red jacket, a bold pattern of a pair of crossed sickles made of white and black raxa is created using the kirihame technique (cutting out part of a cloth and then fit in a different cloth to form a pattern). A small heart-shaped design patched on the handles of the sickles is called inome in Japan. On the front side, there is a design of torii (the gateway at the entrance to a shrine) in twill weave brocade and small red buttons like those found on Western clothes. A jinbaori is worn over the armor on a battlefield. The torii may be designed as a symbol of divine protection on a dangerous battlefield. Such a charm can also be found also on the lining: On the lining of the back, the word "eternity" is embroidered in a circle with bluish green silk thread, which seems to mean a prayer for a lasting life. For the lining, white damask patterned with Western plants is used. This jacket shows that samurais regularly used rare European fabrics that the ships from Spain or Portugal brought into Japan during the Azuchi-Momoyama period.

Black-leather based Haramaki armor (belly protector), susotori-odoshi

Armor that is bound together on the back and was worn by lowly samurai is called "haramaki." Although it was originally composed only of a cuirass, sleeves and a helmet were added in the Muromachi period and together, it also became popular among warlords.

This haramaki is in the style of kurokawa-katasusodori-odoshi, where the top three tiers on the chest are bound together with white, red and white threads in this order, while the tiers below them are bound with black leather strings and the bottom two tiers with red and white threads. The hassokanamono (metal decoration) on the chest comprises a base, where a chrysanthemum branch pattern is applied via openwork and plated with copper and two pairs of double-petal chrysanthemum rivets. Other metal plates are wrapped with patterned leather called mojishigawa, fastened with kozakurabyo (small cherry blossom-shaped rivets) and rimmed with copper plated fukurin (a rim covering the edge of armor for protection or decoration). The sleeves are in the style of seven-tiered osode (literally big sleeves) bound with red, white and red threads for the first three tiers and black leather strings for the rest. This is a haramaki typical of the Muromachi period and is believed to have been owned by the Age family in Sanuki (current Kagawa).

Ishi-jo wielding a naginata by Utagawa Kuniyoshi

Ishi-jo, wife of Oboshi Yoshio, one of the "47 loyal ronin." Print by Kuniyoshi, from the series Seichi Gishin Den, 1848.

100 facts: samurai by John Malam
ISBN: 9781848102989
Publication Date: 2010
Brilliantly portrayed through 100 facts, fantastic images and fun cartoons. Get the inside story on famous commanders, find out how weapons were made and learn about the clever tactics behind battle formations.
A samurai castle by Fiona MacDonald, David Antram & John James
ISBN: 9781908973627
Publication Date: 2015
Although Samurai were not the highest-ranking class in medieval Japan, they were the most powerful, thanks to their honor, bravery, and superior fighting skills. Step inside one of their castles and discover this warrior civilization for yourself. See how the Samurai chose their site and hand-built their structure, and take an incredible tour through the rooms.
Samurai by Caroline Leavitt
ISBN: 9780736864336
Publication Date: 2007
As one of the most respected warriors of ancient Japan, a samurai's utmost goal was honour, even to the point of death. But aside from fighting, samurai were also masters of meditation and poetry. Give into your curiosity and unravel the mystery of what it meant to be a samurai. Go back in time and learn about history's most storied and courageous warriors. Get an in-depth look at the warrior's time and culture, along with details about weapons, skills, and missions. Find out why you wouldn't want to meet these warriors on the battlefield.
Samurai: a guide to the feudal knights by Xavier Niz
ISBN: 9781429666015
Publication Date: 2012
Brave samurai warriors served the lords of Japan and fought epic battles to protect their homeland. Journey back in time to learn about the code of honour followed by these skilled swordsmen and how they prepared for combat.
Samurai: an illustrated history by Mitsuo Kure
ISBN: 9780804832878
Publication Date: 2002
The Samurai fought for property, lands, and money - and sometimes even for honour. The violent, tumultuous, and surprisingly elegant world of medieval Japnese samurai is brought vividly to life in this book. The long bloody era of the samurai - when sons killed their fathers, brothers attacked their brothers, wives betrayed their husbands and hosts their gurst, and the forces of the samurai rulers destroyed those of the emperors and monasteries is depicted here in illustrations, in photos from the weapons collections of major museums, and in photos of meticulous reenactments of famous battles.
Samurai armies 1550-1615 by S. R. Turnbull
ISBN: 9780850453027
Publication Date: 1979
In 1543 three Portuguese merchants entered a turbulent Japan, bringing with them the first firearms the Japanese had ever seen: simple matchlock muskets called arquebuses. They proved a decisive addition to the Japanese armoury, as for centuries the samurai had fought only with bow, sword and spear. In 1575, one of the greatest original thinkers in the history of samurai, Oda Nobunaga, arranged his arquebusiers in ranks three deep behind a palisade and proceeded, quite literally, to blow his opponent's cavalry to pieces, marking the beginning of a new era in Japanese military history.
Samurai women 1184-1877 by Stephen Turnbull
ISBN: 9781846039515
Publication Date: 2010
Tales of female Japanese warriors date back to ancient Japan, with the story of how the semi-legendary Empress|Jingu-kogo led an invasion of Korea while pregnant with the future Emperor Ojin - later deified as Hachiman, the Shinto god of war. Yet throughout the recorded history of Japan, samurai women have been influential both on the battlefield and behind the scenes, and this new study reveals for the first time how extensive the female role was in samurai warfare. As well as describing the exploits of famous female warriors such as Tomoe Gozen and Hojo Masako the 'nun shogun', this book tells of several women who defended castles and reveals how those fighting the modern imperial forces in 1868 became the most famous female samurai warriors in the whole of Japanese history.
The samurai by Anthony J. Bryant & Angus McBride
ISBN: 9780850458978
Publication Date: 1989
Perhaps the greatest warriors in history, the Samurai were a product of a social system totally geared to war. The Samurai became expert in fighting both on horseback and on the ground. Their way of life was dictated by the code of Bushido or 'way of the warrior' and clad in their magnificent, multi-coloured armour they were perfectly suited to the violent clan and dynastic warfare that dominated medieval Japan, as the most powerful families vied for supremacy.
The samurai of Japan by Michael Gibson
ISBN: 9780853401964
Publication Date: 1973
The Samurai were fierce, grim warriors who dominated the long and bloody civil wars which shook Japan in the Middle Ages. Sword and bow were their most prized possessions, loyalty and honour their cherished ideals. Confident of their strength and skill, they fought courageously in battle and, when defeated, died bravely. Yet gruesome tales have also been told of how they tortured, impaled, roasted and boiled their enemies, quite without pity. The history of the Samurai are traced from the dynastic battles of medieval times to the suicide missions of the Second World War. Their military tradition is described in detail as well as their weapons and armour, and the role they played in Japanese society. A vivid picture is painted of the more peaceful side of their lives, their house, food and pastimes, their religious and their culture.
Arms and armour of the Samurai by I. Bottomley & A.P. Hopson
Publication Date: 1996
The Samurai conjures up romantic visions of the chivalrous knights of Ancient Japan, willing to uphold his honour in lone|combat or sacrifice his life in massive mounted charges, always following the code of Bushido (the Way of the Warrior). The Samurai's most ornate and elaborate armour dates from the Tokugawe era, and was probably not intended for use in actual battle.The 700 year history is fully detailed illustrated with over 300 photographs.
Samurai warrior : operations manual by Chris McNab
Publication Date: 2019
This book explains every aspect of the samurai life, from their role as imperial palace guards through to the peak of their power and influence. It includes detail on their military training and fighting techniques, their literacy and artistic sensibilities, attitudes to women, ritual suicide, and much more.